Showing posts with label definition of book. Show all posts
Showing posts with label definition of book. Show all posts

Friday, 11 May 2007

Codex 應生,應死?

What is a Codex? 為什麼這個書的形態使設計師又愛又恨呢?我繼續在書香中尋找線索。

在Philip B. Meggs的 ‘A History of Graphic Design’ (P.39) 裡提到:
The invention of parchment, which was so much more durable than papyrus, and the codex format, which could take thicker paint because it did not have to be rolled, open new possibilities for design and illustration.

這道出了Codex的出現是用來代替 Scroll 卷軸的。

在Andrew Haslam 的 ‘Book Design’一書中,他對Codex所作的解釋是:
Codex: Historically, a manscript text bound in book form – as opposed to a scroll.

而在 Keith A. Smith 的 ‘STRUCTURE OF THE VISUAL BOOK’ 對 Codex 所下的定義是:
Codex: One of the four types of books. The other types being the fan, the Venetian blind, the oriental fold. Type is determined by how it is bound. The codex is bound along one edge.

Keith A. Smith 則著重提到 Codex 是四大書種之一,其他的分別是 fan (扇裝書,bind 一口釘的)、Venetian blind (百葉簾式的書)、oriental fold (相等於中國的經折裝 )。這四大書種的分別在於它們的裝訂方法。

另外,JAMES BETTLEY 在 ‘The Art of the Book: FROM MEDIEVAL MANUSCRIPT TO GRAPHIC NOVEL’ 的第三章 ‘Bindings’ (P.56) 中提到:

The book as we know it today is technically known as a codex. The word is derived from the Latin for tree trunk, an interesting parallel with the origin of the word ‘book’, which is generally believed to have come from the word for ‘beech’. Why these words are associated with the tree is still much debated.

The codex came into existence in Rome in the third century BC, when clay writing tablets were joined together by thongs. By the first century BC, tablets had been replaced by membranes or sheets of parchment. The codex gained in popularity, providing most cheap and portable books by the first century AD. The scroll, however, remained the chief means of distributing text throughout the Roman period. Early Christians popularised the codex, and, made from papyrus leaves, it was much used by them in Alexandria.

The rise of Christianity brought the codex growing prestige. The scroll became associated with pagan writings and by the late fourth century AD had almost completely been displaced. The codex developed further. With the use of parchment and paper, large sheets were folded over to create two leaves. When inserted one into another and stitched, the folds gave greater strength to flexible but structurally weak material like paper.

James Bettley 清楚解釋了 Codex 掘起的經過,還一用就沿用了五百多年,直到現在。而在第八章 ‘Book Art’ 一文 (P.164) 提到:
Over the last 500 years or so, the most popular format for such work has been the codex: moveable type printed on paper, and sewn or glued together between outer boards.

我們又再看看我國用 Codex 的歷史。

在《翻開——當代中國書籍設計》一書中,杭間的文章《「開卷」——中國古代書籍藝術的審美形態》裡提到:

(P.8) 從先秦的「簡策裝」到唐宋以後的「經折裝」、「卷軸裝」、「旋風裝」、「蝴蝶裝」、「裱褙裝」、「線裝」等,一直到近世機械印刷術傳入後的種種複雜豐富的現代裝幀形態,一部書籍形態發展的歷史,也是獨特的審美文化史。

(P.15) 從裝訂方法來分,除前面說這的簡策裝、卷軸裝外,宋元時期還流行蝴蝶裝。蝴蝶裝是以書頁中縫為界,將有字的一面向裡折,然後將書頁對疊起來,把折頁的背粘在包背紙上,其特點是每頁都是單張,形似蝴蝶,書打開後,四面留白很大,使效果十分雅致。一些經卷和奏折也用經折裝,卷首和卷尾用韌性較好的紙或布帛,不但不易損壞,不但不易損壞,也便於經常性閱讀的開啟。在卷軸裝和經折裝之間,還有一種過渡形式,是將折疊好的經卷首尾各長出一段,再卷起來,就為「旋風裝」,意為打開時如旋風之翻頁。包背裝是用紙捻將書頁固定,然後在外面用書皮包裹,其原理有些如現在的精裝書。至於線裝,則因簡易、牢固、美觀而成為明清古籍的裝幀主流。

看畢這段歷史後,我真的覺得我國的BINDING名是特別優美的;蝴蝶裝、旋風裝。而線裝書則相等於西方的 Codex (這是我個人認為的,我不知是否一定相等,但以 “moveable type printed on paper, and sewn or glued together between outer boards” 這個角度看,兩者是無大差異的。),明朝國祚為 276 年,清朝國祚為 268 年,總計是 544 年,即是與西方也是差不多流行了五百多年。

Book = Codex?

但就是因為 Codex 這個binding方法所產生的書過於流行,使很多人甚至以為書就只有 Codex ;完全忽略了其他 Format 的書。書籍設計師孫浚良不只一次在訪問中批評Codex限制了書的形態、寫作的空間、閱讀的形式與人的思想。

在明報訪問〈書籍設計﹕要令文字摸得 ——訪書籍設計師孫浚良〉中,Les指出:
書的形態或構成,卻為寫作定下框架﹕Codex的側邊釘裝頁形式,使閱讀需有次序的起承轉合,「寫到第十六個字要轉行、要翻頁,」卻忽視了坊間千篇一律的書的形態,不過是附庸於系統與制度的暴力性﹕古騰堡活版印刷之後,工業革命讓人憧憬速度與量產,書如非統一面貌便上不了印刷機。

在網上日誌 Orangedays 的訪談〈書的身體〉中,Les提到:
孫浚良指出,現代書本的形式多以codex的形式出現─一頁頁裁好後,在一邊釘裝,讓讀者可以逐頁揭。這種形式最初是用來代替一卷一卷的聖經的,因着携帶、閱讀及儲存上的方便,便一直沿用,甚至令人以為,不是這個樣子的,就稱不上是書本。
  
「這又與社會發展有關。人只是走向數量及速度的最大化,但人的手及人性都跟不上。這種跟不上的狀況就展現在書的形式之上,使人們相信書就應該是這樣的。這就如一篇文章,我們以為一定要有intro、body、conclusion,以為有這樣的形式,才是一篇文章,而不知它應有很多其他寫法。」

  
「這種逐頁揭的形態會局限了內容。」他指出,作者往往會想,自己所寫的會被分成一頁一頁,而且是連續地被閱讀的。這種閱讀模式就會令作者以某一類特定的形式寫作,從而局限了創意。

《號外》的 ‘City Book Review’ 的專題訪談〈孫浚良:解放書的「軀束」〉裡,Les再次批評,挑戰權威:
因為我們今時今日見到的書,就是LES最不滿的地方。為什麼書會變成這樣的模式呢?
其實自從1455年2月23日,GUTENBERG開始了活版印刷,出了第一本書之後,書便開始定形。直至2006年的今天,這種書的歷史還不夠600年。「首先,傳統的書已經BOUND好了,現在書的這個FORM已經告訴你一件事:你要如何去寫作。即是你必須由第一頁開始寫,寫到最後一頁,這個FORM已經給了你一個次序,而你的邏輯便因為這本書而改變,你幾時試過由後面開始寫?你會由INTRO開始寫,立論然後寫CONTENT,之後係內容和結論。但是,你平時思考也是這樣的嗎?如果不是,為什麼你又要這樣寫?我覺得是書的形式改變了我們的寫作,亦都令的們習慣了某種閱讀模式。

他認為應該解放書的FORM,奪回自己的身體!

我也認為書的形態、寫作的模式、閱讀的形式是應該全面解放的。其實 Codex 就好比 「儒家思想」,當年漢武帝「罷黜百家,獨專儒術」,使幾百年來我們也只受儒家一派的教育,思想被困死於儒教;也使得百家學術趨於滅亡、先秦時期開創的科學成果與批判精神後繼乏人。如果書的FORM(流行了幾百年Codex)可以解放的話,讓其他FORM的書可以進入市場一齊玩,出版界百花齊放、百家爭鳴的局面是指日可待的。

但最重要的是讀者的感受,如果可以讓讀者認識多些不同FORM的書,有了基本的認知,我相信他們會接受到其他的Book Format的。當科技再愈來愈進步的時候,我們造更多奇形怪狀的書就可更得心應手了。

各位 Book Designer/ Artist 們,俾心機呀!

Thursday, 10 May 2007

書的意義

書是甚麼呢?What is a book?

在這個扭曲變異的時代,我們應該如何看待「書」?我們又應如何把它定義?再者,「書」對我們來說又是甚麼呢?

中外學者對「書」作了不同的解讀,不論在用途上、語意上、形態上、心態上;他們也作了詳細、精確的定義。在我認知的範圍裡,我會把這些定義(規則與教條)一一列舉。我相信只有這樣做,我們才可以以一個比較GLOBAL的眼光去看「書」;也只有這樣,我們才可在這基礎上繼續建構我們對書的更深一層的研究與探討。

日劇《龍櫻》的以櫻木老師為首的一班老師曾經說過:「正是遵守規則的人才是有獨創性、有個性的人;在近代科學中,憑胡亂的想法是不可能有大發現的;大家都很好的理解基礎研究,在遵守這個學問中的規則的基礎上,研究才能得以進展;沒有遵循規則的精神,不可能有學問上的發現。」

在 Andrew Haslam 的 ‘Book Design’ 一書中,他有對「語意上」的 “Book” 作解釋:

The English word ‘book’ is derived from the Old English word bok, itself linked to the word for ‘beech tree’. Beech boards were written on by Saxons and Germans, and a literal definition of the book is ‘a board for writing’.

在語意上,“book” 只是一塊供寫作用的板。

另外,Andrew Haslam 也為 “book” 搜羅了幾本經典的一些「書的定義」:

The Concise Oxford Dictionary presents two simple alternatives:
1) ‘Portable written or printed treatise filling a number of sheets fastened together.’
2) ‘Literary composition that would fill a set of sheets.’

These simple definitions identify two key elements: the physical description of a portable printed set of bound sheets, and a reference to writing and literature. The Encycloaedia Britannica offers:
3) … a written (or printed) message of considerable length, meant for public circulation and recorded on materials that are light yet durable enough to afford comparatively easy portability.’
4) ‘Instrument of communication.’

These definitions introduce the ideas of readership and communication. In The Encyclopeidia of the Book (1996), Geoffrey Ashall Glaister puts figures to the notions of expense and extent:

5) ‘For statistical purposes the British book trade once assumed that a book was a publication costing sixpence or more.’
6) ‘Other countries define a book as containing a minimum number of pages; a UNESCO conference in 1950 defined a book as “a non-periodical literary publication containing 49 or more pages, not counting the covers”.’

These definitions are clearly born out of legal concerns and tax regulation. While the physical descriptions of sheets and fastening may be accurate, none of the above definitions seems to capture the influence or power of a book. It may prompt further discussion if I put forward a definition of my own:

7) Book: A portable container consisting of a series of printed and bound pages that preserves, announces, expounds, and transmits knowledge to a literate readership across time and space.

以上第七點就是Andrew Haclam 個人對「書」所下的定義。我現在先不作評論,再看看其他人怎麼看。

根據《現代漢語大詞典》(P.1168),「書」這個字有五個解釋:
1) 寫字;記錄;書寫
2) 字體
3) 裝訂成冊的著作
4) 書信
5) 文件

「書」是一個多義的字,可作動詞;亦可作名詞。而在中文的字詞中,冊、典、本、藉亦可作「書」字(3)「裝訂成冊的著作」的意思。

我再翻開謝光輝主編的《漢字圖解》(Illustrated Account of Chinese Characters) (P.303) 一看,發現有對古文「冊」字的註解:

「在古代紙還沒有發明和大量製造以前,人們用於書寫的主要材料是竹簡(一種經過加工修整的窄長竹片)。通常一條竹簡只能寫一行字,而把許多條竹簡用繩子聯結起來,就成為冊。古文字的冊字,正是這種編簡成冊的形象描繪。後來的冊字,就被用為書籍之義。」

Before the invention of paper, one of the main materials used for writing in China was bamboo slips. And the slips bound together make a book. In ancient writing systems, the character 冊 has the shape of many bamboo slips bound together, hence its meaning “book” and “volume”.

而在嚴文郁先生的《中國書籍簡史》中,他提出了的又是幾部經典和與 Andrew Haclam 相似的論述(書的篇幅和價格)。

《說文解字》卷五兀部,「典」字下注「五帝之書也。」五帝時典冊所用何種材料,不得而知,但許慎仍稱之為「書」。書之本義作「箸」解,原係書寫的意思,後借用為典籍的通稱。

《大英百科全書》認為書籍有三種特徵:
1) instrument of communication 人類交換信息的工具
2) to convey a meaning 人類使用文字或他種符號(如圖畫及音符)傳達的意念
3) publication for tangible circulation 實地流傳的出版品
根據這三種特徵所下的定義是:「書籍是寫或印成相當長的(considerable length)——至少四十五頁——情報(message),為了流傳給大眾,並且需用一種輕而耐用的材料,以便攜帶和保存。」

在歐洲多以出版物的篇幅和價格作為書的定義。
1) 倫敦以定價六便士的出版品為書,六便士以下為小冊子。
2) 對於書頁多少,世界各國有其約家俗成的標準,如愛爾蘭、意大利、摩洛哥皆為一百頁,丹麥為六十頁,南非和黎巴嫩為五十頁,加拿大、芬蘭、挪威、比利時為四十頁,捷克三十二頁,冰島只須十七頁。

聯合國教科文組織(UNESCO)定了一個標準:「凡是不定期刊物,除封面外,有四十九頁以上的文字出版品就叫做書。」所謂文字出版品則包括甚廣,有政府官書、公文、報告、法令、甚至書目、索引等。( Andrew Haclam 也提及這個定義,這只是中文詳細版。)

而 Keith A. Smith 在 ‘STRUCTURE OF THE VISUAL BOOK’ 對書的定義提出了非常有趣的問題:

Does a book have to be bound? If it weren’t, it would be a portfolio or a stack. Is a stack an unbound book?

The oriental fold book is created by folding a long sheet of paper alternately back and forth on itself. There is no sewing or gluing. The binding is mechanical. If an imaged book of this type were not folded, it would be a mural, not a book. However, if that mural is stored by rolling, it is s scroll. Is a scroll a book?

If I set out to make a photograph that is a foot tall and 10 feet long, the result is single picture. If I roll it up to store it, is it then a scroll, or does it have to be conceived as a scroll? Does convenient storage constitute any book?

Someone takes a large sheet of blank paper, wads it up, then throws it in a kitchen trash compactor. It is then compressed flat. The paper has been “folded” by a machine. Is it then an oriental fold book, or is it trash?

It depends upon intention. If that person declares it a book, it is a book! If they do not, it is not. Definitions are not ageless laws, but current understanding. They grow with usage through insight and error. We extend our knowledge, as well as our false assumptions, and both of these change the way we see, the way we think. Our definitions evolve; they are not cut in stone, like the rigidity of religion.

我也認同 Keith A. Smith 的說法,時代不斷在變遷,任何一個定義都不可能恆久不變,根本無可能一本通書睇到老。 可能我們只可以廣義地說,凡是文字記錄,無論抄寫、雕刻、印刷或攝錄在任何一種材料上,都可稱之為書。我們只能以內容,而非形體來斷定甚麼是書。「金石木竹帛的典冊」好,「紙本」好,「金屬/膠的電子書」也好;就算是「書 AS INSTALLATION」都好,根本不能說不是書;好像 Keith A. Smith 說,最重要的是 INTENTION,這也是書的EVOLUTION。

綜合以上定義,我們亦有一些重點值得留意的:
1) Meaning of word 'book'
2) Physical description (ie. a portable printed set of bound sheets or other materials)
3) Writing and Literature
4) Readership and Communication
5) Legal concerns and Tax regulation
6) Number of Pages
7) Influence or Power of a book

p.s.歡迎提供任何書藉的定義,再作討論。